Who is the greatest African American of the past hundred years? Who was the most prophetic about civil rights concerns for the twenty-first century? Not Martin Luther King. I would have to rank him second or third. The greatest and most prophetic figure was Booker T. Washington. To see why, we have to revisit an early twentieth-century debate between Washington and W.E.B. DuBois. Although the debate focused on black Americans, it is relevant to the question of how any group starting out at the bottom can advance in society.
DuBois, a distinguished scholar and co-founder of the civil rights organization NAACP, argued that blacks in America face one big problem, and it is racism. Washington, who was born a slave but went on to become head of the Tuskegee Institute, countered that blacks face two big problems. One is racism, he conceded. The other, he said, is African American cultural disadvantage. Washington contended that black crime rates were too high, black savings rates were too low, there were too many broken families, blacks did not have enough respect for educational achievement, and so on.
DuBois insisted that these problems, if they existed, were due to the legacy of slavery and racism. Washington did not entirely disagree, but he insisted that, whatever their source, these cultural problems demanded attention. What is the point of having rights, Washington said, without the ability to exercise those rights and compete effectively with other groups? To put the matter in contemporary terms, there is little benefit in having a right to a job at Microsoft if you don't have the skills to get and perform the job. Washington further implied that if these cultural deficiencies were not remedied, they would help to strengthen racism by giving it an empirical foundation.
The civil rights movement, led by the NAACP and later Martin Luther King, fought for decades to implement the DuBois program and secure basic rights for black Americans. This was a necessary campaign, and ultimately it was successful. The laws were changed, and blacks achieved their goal of legal equality and full citizenship. Other minorities (and I count myself in this group) also benefited from the doors that King and his fellow activists opened. Obviously issues of enforcement remain, but by the late 1960s the early civil rights agenda represented by DuBois and King had been largely achieved. At this crucial juncture, the civil rights movement should have moved to embrace the Booker T. Washington agenda.
Unfortunately this didn't happen. It still hasn't happened. Even today Jesse Jackson and the NAACP continue (in the famous words of Frederick Douglass) to "agitate, agitate, agitate" for black progress. But now there are hardly any Bull Connors and Southern segregationists to fight, and so the activists are reduced to fighting "covert racism" and "institutional racism" and "racism that has gone underground" and basically racism that is only visible to them and to no one else. Most significant, these fights do little to help the blacks who are the poorest, the group that sociologist William Julius Wilson termed "the truly disadvantaged."
Meanwhile, there is another group that is following the Booker T. Washington strategy, and that is the nonwhite immigrants. I don't just mean the Koreans and the Asian Indians; I also mean black immigrants--the West Indians, the Haitians, the Nigerians, and so on. All are darker in complexion than African Americans, and yet racism does not seem to stop them. The immigrants know that racism today is no longer systematic, it is episodic, and they are able to find ways to navigate around its obstacles. Even immigrants who start out at the very bottom have shown that they are make rapid gains. These groups are surging ahead of African Americans and claiming the American dream for themselves. West Indians, for instance, have established a strong business and professional community and have achieved income parity with whites.
How is this possible? The nonwhite immigrants don't spend a lot of time meditating about the hardships of the past, nor do they blame their circumstances on society. They recognize that education and entrepreneurship are the fastest ladders to success in America. They push their children to study, so that they will be admitted to Berkeley and MIT, and they pool their resources and set up small businesses, so that they can make some money and move to the suburbs.
Thus we find that any group trying to move up in America is confronted with two possible strategies--the DuBois strategy and the Washington strategy---and it is an empirical question as to which one works better. A century ago, when segregation was still the rule, clearly the DuBois strategy was better. In this sense, Booker T. Washington was wrong during his day. But today it's clear that the man was ahead of his time. So far the evidence is overwhelming that the immigrant approach of assimilating to the cultural strategies of success is vastly better for group uplift than the tired old strategy of "agitate, agitate, agitate."
Martin Luther King nobly led the first phase of the struggle, but he only dimly saw the next stage. At the time of his death King was peddling all kinds of impractical schemes for sharing the wealth and he also became unnecessarily involved in the anti-Vietnam movement which diluted his currency as a civil rights leader. Even so, there were moments when King was prescient about the future. At one point he said that ultimately every man must write with his own hand the charter of his emancipation proclamation. I take him to mean that we all have the right to be treated equally under the law. We have this right, but we don't have any more rights than this. What we do with our rights, what we make of ourselves, the script that we write of our own lives, this finally is up to us.
Postscript: This article has been loosely adapted from my book What's So Great About America. The issues it raises are exhaustively treated in one of my earlier books, The End of Racism.
Reader Comments ( Page 1 of 40)
1. While I don't normally think DD's opinions are worth the online space they occupy--and while I find "ranking" civil rights heroes to be a dangerous game at best--I have to agree that Washington may be a more prophetic figure than some people have given him credit for. I encourage folks to read "Up From Slavery," if only to separate Washington's real arguments from DD's interpretation of them.
JD at 2:41PM on Jan 19th 2008
2. ATHEIST
As I said earlier, Dinesh isn't really a Catholic. He's an Agnostic.
Dinesh isn't willing to defend the CORE BELIEFS of Catholicism. He's rather talk about church history.
History is cool. Today's blog is also about history:
DINESH: Booker T. Washington, who was born a slave but went on to become head of the Tuskegee Institute, countered that
... black crime rates were too high,
black savings rates were too low, there were too many broken families,
**** blacks did not have enough respect for educational achievement *****
____________________
Any list that leaves off Oprah... well, Oprah may do a LOT more than either one before she's gone.
Dinesh, you've got to get MORE RESPECT for education.
Specifically, the FACT that we now understand that Demonic Possession does NOT exist.
You champion a book that describes Jesus as an exorcist.
Being an exorcist is one thing. But saying that demonic spirits obeyed Jesus... that's something else.
If the story is true, then Jesus was a CON MAN.
But the better answer is, the New Testament stories were made up AFTER Jesus died.... do not desscribe anything that actually happened.... and that the "exorcist" stories were simply a Sales Pitch to recruit new victims to a cult.
A cult based on the beliefs of the Pharisees:
resurrection of the dead at the end of the world
angels
spirits.
Until you acknowledge that education has PROVEN Catholicism to be a Sales Pitch for con men, you're falling into the same trap.
Sitting back and saying nothing is not the same thing as Honesty.
William Hays at 2:45PM on Jan 19th 2008
3. I can see why D'Souza would elevate Booker T. Washington above Martin Luther King- Washington was too much an accommodationist to the racism that permeated his America. King, on the other hand, fought tirelesly, and ultimately gave his life for a cause that D'Souza has oppsed- the end of the segregationist Jim Crow laws. D'Souza has called for the repeal of the Civil Right Act of 1964. Although he isn't old enough to remember the Jim Crow era, I am. I can well recall the "good old days" for which D'Souza is inexplicably nostalgic- the restaurant signs that said "Whites Only", the employment offices that said "No Colored Need Apply", the separate restrooms and drinking fountains, the back of the bus and theater balconies to which blacks were relegated- and a host of other racist practices, all of which would be once again legal if D'Souza got his wish. Fortunately, that will probably happen about the time I'm elected the next King of England. It is thoroughly hypocritical for D'Souza to now state that the passage of the civil rights laws was a "necessary campaign", when his writings have taken a completely different view. A return to an America in which Jim Crow is once again legal may be D'Souza's dream of the future. It isn't mine.
Ron Smith at 2:49PM on Jan 19th 2008
4. ATHEIST
reply to: I can well recall the "good old days" f- the restaurant signs that said "Whites Only", the employment offices that said "No Colored Need Apply", the separate restrooms and drinking fountains, the back of the bus and theater balconies to which blacks were relegated- and a host of other racist practices, all of which would be once again legal if D'Souza got his wish.
______________
No, I don't think so.
Once again, the contribution of "Oprah."
Oprah's on television every day. On most days, she has the most interesting program.
There's no going back. Oprah could use the power of television to place a spotlight on enyone who tried the stuff you're talking about.
William Hays at 3:02PM on Jan 19th 2008
5. Dude #2 comments above are interesting.
I am an athiest, and demons do exist...so does demonic possession, and JC WAS an exorcist.
I am a parapsychologist and ghost hunter. Never say never, guy. All things are possible. The thing is, how probable are they?
As for DD, his right-wing conservative views are mostly damaging to western culture and scientific endeavor. His kind spend so much time waiting for the End of the World that they are more of a burden to society than a contributor.
The Goddess Athena at 3:27PM on Jan 19th 2008
6. Dinesh:
Excellent article.
kulari94 at 3:28PM on Jan 19th 2008
7. Dinesh:
The racists' arguments back then to blacks was, what are you going to do with freedom? What are you going to do with these rights?
When blacks don't acquire or have the skills to compete (because of broken families, lack of savings, education, etc.), they unfortunately are only reinforcing the arguments of those who sought to deny them rights in the past.
kulari94 at 3:32PM on Jan 19th 2008
8. ATHEIST
Reply to: I am an athiest, and
&&& demons do exist...so does demonic possession,***
and JC WAS an exorcist. I am a parapsychologist and ghost hunter. Never say never, guy. All things are possible. The thing is, how probable are they? (end)
__________________
No, that's WRONG.
All things are NOT possible.
that's my MAJOR point here. The difference between a Con Game, and Reality.
A Con Game is based on FOOLING people. ie, like a statement that demons do exist.
There are thousands of dimwit Christians who thinks demons do exist. They never realize that there's a different group out there.... who think it is hilarious to see if people can be stupid enough to believe demons exist.
Not sure if your comment was serious... but it does demonstrate a serious problem.
People are gullible.
In order to sell books, sure, it's possible to PRETEND that ghosts and demons exist. People will LIE about it because that's how they put bread on the table.
You've got to learn how to say NO to lies and con men.
William Hays at 3:35PM on Jan 19th 2008
9. ATHEIST
Let me say it differently.
There are different subjects at college like Biology, Geology, Astronomy.
In those fields, there no advantage to LYING.
But when it comes to the Supernatural...
Ghosts
Demons
Exorcism
Crop Circles
UFO
... there's a HUGE reason to make stuff up.
(1) Just to see if anyone is gullible enough to believe it.
(2) so you can make a living as a ghost hunter.
If you don't take that into consideration, you're NOT going to find the correct answer.
The supernatural... is ALWAYS an Imaginary World.
I seriously doubt that the real Jesus was an Exorcist. The demon stories in the gospels weren't added until 40 years after Jesus died.
William Hays at 3:40PM on Jan 19th 2008
10. All right, I am going to comment on those who commented on my comment...:>)
Just because you have never seen a UFO or a demon does not mean that it does not exist.
True, Christians have set back Western Civilization two thousand years, and killed millions in the name of their religion in witch hunts, inquisitions, wars of religion...but that doesn't mean that the bible has no valid points whatsoever...
And I don't make my living as a parapsychologist. With the economy that it is today in America, most people are not making a decent living at anything.
The Goddess Athena at 3:50PM on Jan 19th 2008
11. I think some of the people leaving comments need to read and reply to article at hand, and not bring in outside points that have nothing to do with this. The author's religous points of view and reasoning why he thinks Jesus was an exorcist have no importance toward this article. I thinks he wrote this article well, and makes many valid points, even though I must agree with first person that ranking civil right leaders is rather dangerous. I think that there is racism alive today, but by much less effect than it was merely 40 years ago. The past is the past, and we must learn from every horrible thing that happened against blacks, Jews, Hispanics, the disabled, etc. But a person success is ultimately left up to that person. It may sound cliche, but it's not were a person is from, but it is where that person is going. I agree with D'Souza in this article because I've met many people of all colors and background use what ever happened to them as an excuse to not move forward in their lives, and just live as the victims. It is a new millenium, it's time for all of us - even African Americans - to stop perpetuating racism and prejudice, and uplift ourselves so we can all finally be judged on the content of our character.
Krystal at 3:59PM on Jan 19th 2008
12. Ms. Krystal,
Racism, sexism, religious intolerance, etc. will always be with us. History and human behavior is not linear, but circular in nature. The Salem witch trials happened in the 1600's. Michelangelo and Leonardo Da Vinci (who invented the flying machine) lived in the 1500's. Aristotle lived in 300 B.C.
Society can and has swung backwards into ignorance many times. Epidemics of disease and starvation can do it, Ice ages can do it, wars can do it.
The Goddess Athena at 4:16PM on Jan 19th 2008
13. The "greatest African-American" in history? Well, duh, big guy. Tiger Woods, of course. And Mr. Hayes, you get the lifetime AOL blogging award. And why do you work so hard trying to debunk the supernatural? Methinks you doth protest too much.
Dave at 4:17PM on Jan 19th 2008
14. http://evolutionfacts.blogspot.com
FORMER ATHEIST at 4:24PM on Jan 19th 2008
15. Goddess Athena:
What in the world are you talking about when you say most people in America can't make a decent living at anything? Do you live in America?
kulari94 at 4:24PM on Jan 19th 2008